Mowday et al (1979)

Validate the Organizational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ)
Their measure is contaminated with other stuff. It is hard to say that organizational commitment is really driving the results. It could be other stuff.

Becker et al (1996)

The authors argue that although overall commitment to organizations appears to be largely unrelated to job performance, it is possible that there is a relationship between commitment as a multidimensional phenomenon and performance.

Vandenberghe et al (2004)

Three commitment foci were addressed in the present research: the global organization, the supervisor, and the work group.

POS contributed uniquely to affective organizational commitment, LMX was uniquely related to affective commitment to the supervisor, whereas perceived group cohesiveness was the sole significant predictor of affective commitment to the work group.

Rhoades et al (2001)

Based on the reciprocity norm, perceived organizational support would create a felt obligation to care about the origination's welfare and help the organization reach its objectives (affective commitment).

Meyer and Allen (1984)

The authors test the methodological issues with "Side-Bet Theory" of Organizational Commitment

Powell and Meyer (2004)

The effect of making side bets is to increase the cost of failing to persist in a course of action. In the case of organizational commitment, the course of action is staying with the company.

Although increased continuance commitment can contribute to decreased turnover, research has consistently demonstrated that it is a less desirable form of commitment compared to affective and normative commitment.

Meyer et al (2002)

Found that the three forms of commitment are related yet distinguishable from one another as well as from job satisfaction, job involvement, and occupational commitment.

If you have to measure two, choose affective and continuance. Normative does not really predict above and beyond affective.

Luchak and Gellatly (2007)

Looked at outcomes related to affective and continuance commitment. Posited a nonlinear relationship between continuance commitment and these outcomes, which was supported. You want certain levels of continuance commitment, but you overall want affective commitment to be high.

Flynn and Schaumberg (2012)

The authors posit that higher levels of guilt-proneness are associated with higher levels of affective organizational commitment.

Xu and Payne (2016)

Results demonstrated that the structure of commitment profiles (number and nature) were relatively stable across measurement occasions within a given sample.
Findings support that a single assessment of commitment profiles predicted the occurrence and the timing of turnover such that value-based profiles revealed lower turnover hazard and higher survival probabilities over time relative to weak commitment profiles.
Findings also support that there are meaningful differences between groups of individuals on the basis of the combination of affective forces/the desire to stay and behavioral forces/external constraints that prevent them from leaving

Klein et al (2012)

A bond is not commitment unless one chooses to accept responsibility for and dedicate oneself to the target.

Defining commitment as a state distinct from an attitude further conceptually differentiates commitment and affective constructs such as satisfaction and explains the reciprocal relationship between them

Becker et al (2018)

Presents a model proposing that commitment to professions influences productivity through a positive effect on intrinsic motivation and a negative effect on extrinsic motivation.

Commitment to organizations, conversely, is hypothesized to have a negative effect on intrinsic motivation and a positive effect on extrinsic motivation.

Organizational Commitment

An employee's desire to remain a member of an organization. 3 types of organizational commitment

Withdrawal Behavior

Employee actions that are intended to avoid work situation

Affective Commitment

• An employee's desire to remain a member of an organization due to a feeling or emotional attachment.
• Staying because you want to
• "I love my job!"

Continuance Commitment

• An employee's desire to remain a member of an organization due to an awareness of the costs of leaving
• Staying because you have to
• "Working here is the only way I can afford this house"

Normative Commitment

• An employee's desire to remain a member of an organization due to a feeling of obligation
• Staying because you ought to
• "They've invested so much time in me"

Focus of Commitment

The people, places, things that inspire a desire to remain a member of the organization

Erosion Model

A model that suggests that employees that have fewer bonds with co-workers are more likely to quit

Social Influence Model

A model that suggests that employees with direct linkages to co-workers who leave the organization are more likely to leave themselves.

Embeddedness

An employee's connection to the organization. Does the employee fit into the organization and community?

Withdrawal Behavior

The opposite of organizational commitment.

Response to negative work events

• Exit: a response to a negative work event in which one becomes often absent from work or voluntarily leaves the organization
• Voice: a response in which an employee offers suggestions for change
• Loyalty: a passive response to negative work event in which one publicly supports the situation but privately hopes for improvement
• Neglect: A passive yet destructive response, in which one's interest and effort in work decline

Psychological Withdrawal

Mentally escaping the work environment
• Daydreaming
• Socializing
• Looking busy
• Moonlighting: using work time to work on other non-work related activities
• Cyber-loafing: wasting time on the internet

Physical Withdrawal

Physically escaping the work environment
• Tardiness
• Long breaks
• Missing meetings
• Absenteeism: employee doesn't show up to work for a full day
• Quitting

Independent Forms Model

A model that predicts that various withdrawal behaviours are uncorrelated, so engaging in one has little bearing on engaging in others

Compensatory Forms Model

A model indicating that the various withdrawal behaviours are negatively correlated, so engaging in one type makes it less likely to engage in another

Progression Model

A model indicating that various withdrawal behaviors are correlated, so engaging in one type makes one more likely to engage in other

Diversity in the Workforce

As employee's become more and more diverse, there is less affective commitment in the workforce

Psychological Contracts

Employees' beliefs about what they owe the company and vice versa

Transactional Contracts

Focus on monetary obligations. Attendance pay

Relational Contracts

Open-ended/subjective obligations. Loyalty job security

Perceived Organizational Support

The degree to which employees believe that the organization values their contributions and cares about their well-being.

organizational commitment

a desire on the part of an employee to remain a member of an organization

affective commitment

a desire to remain a member of an organization due to an emotional attachment to, and involvement with, that organization
-you stay because you want to
-managers want this most

continuous commitment

-have to stay at job, nowhere else to go
-feel fear to leave job
-least optimal for bosses

normative commitment

a desire to remain a member of an organization due to a feeling of obligation
-would feel regret if you left

focus commitment

the various people, places, and things that can inspire a desire to remain a member of an organization
-attachment to team/boss

erosion model

Social network diagram- affective commitment; employees with fewer bonds will be most likely to quit the organization
measures: frequency and depth of communication

social influence model

argues that people with linkages to "leavers" will become at risk for turning over
-contagious, spreads like a disease

exit

ending or restricting organizational membership

voice

a constructive response where individuals attempt to improve the situation

loyalty

A passive response where the employee remains supportive while hoping for improvement

neglect

-Interest and effort in the job is reduced
-going through the motions allowing performance to deteriorate
-costly and less noticeable

four types of employees

Stars, Citizens, Lone Wolves, Apathetics

stars

high organizational commitment, high task performance

citizens

high organizational commitment, low task performance

lone wolves

low organizational commitment, high task performance

apathetics

low organizational commitment, low task performance

low task performance

lack the credibility/marketable to make suggestions

low organizational commitment

not willing to commit OCBs

withdrawal

-psychological, physical

moonlighting

using work time and resources to complete something other than their job duties, such as assignments for another job

independent forms of withdrawal

behaviors are uncorrelated

compensatory forms of withdrawal

negatively correlated, doing one means you're less likely to do another

progression

positively correlated, has the most support

psychological contracts

reflect employees' beliefs about what they owe the organization and what the organization owes them

transactional contracts

based on a narrow set of specific monetary obligations

relational contracts

based on a broader set of open-ended and subjective obligations

Organizational commitment

Desire on the part of the employee to remain a member of the org

Withdrawal behavior

A set of actions that employees perform to avoid the work situation; behaviors that may culminate in quitting the org

Affective commitment

A desire to remain a member of an org due to an emotional attachment to, and involvement with, that org

Continuance commitment

A desire to remain a member of an org because of an awareness of the costs associated with leaving it

Normative commitment

A desire to remain a member of an org due to a feeling of obligation

Focus of commitment

Various people, places, and things that can inspire a desire to remain a member of an org

Erosion model

Suggests that employees with fewer bonds will be most likely to quit the organization

Social influence model

Suggests that employees who have direct linkages with "leavers" will themselves become more likely to leave

Embeddedness

Summarizes employees' links to their org and community, their sense of fit with their org and community, and what they would have to sacrifice for a job change

Exit

An active, destructive response by which an individual either ends or restricts organizational membership

Voice

An active, constructive response in which individuals attempt to improve the situation

Neglect

A passive, destructive response in which interest and effort in the job declines

Loyalty

A passive, constructive response that maintains public support for the situation while the individual privately hopes for improvement

Stars

Possess high commitment and high performance and are held as role models for other employees

Citizens

Possess high commitment and low task performance but perform many of the voluntary extra role activities that are needed to make the org function smoothly

Lone wolves

Possess low levels of organizational commitment but high levels of task performance and are motivated to achieve work goals for themselves, not necessarily for their company

Apathetics

Possess low levels of both organizational commitment and task performance and merely exert the minimum level of effort needed to keep their jobs

Psychological withdrawal

Actions that provide a mental escape from the work environment

Daydreaming

Employees appear to be working but are actually distracted by random thoughts or concerns; psychological withdrawal

Socializing

Verbal chatting about nonwork topics that goes on in cubicles and offices or at the mailbox or vending machines; psychological withdrawal

Looking busy

Intentional desire ont he part of employees to look like they're working, even when not performing work tasks; psychological withdrawal

Moonlighting

Use work time and resources to complete something other than their job duties; psychological withdrawal

Cyberloafing

Using Internet, email, and instant messaging access for their personal enjoyment rather than work duties; psychological withdrawal

Physical withdrawal

Actions that provide a physical escape, whether short term or long term, from the work environment

Tardiness

Tendency to arrive to work late; physical withdrawal

Long breaks

Longer-than-normal lunches, soda breaks, and so forth that provide a physical escape from work; physical withdrawal

Missing meetings

Employees neglect important work functions while away from the office; physical withdrawal

Absenteeism

Employees miss an entire day of work; physical withdrawal

Quitting

Voluntarily leaving the org; physical withdrawal

Independent forms model of withdrawal

The various withdrawal behaviors are uncorrelated with one another, occur for different reasons, and fulfill different needs on the part of employees

Compensatory forms model of withdrawal

The various withdrawal behaviors negatively correlate with one another; doing one means you're less likely to do another

Progression model of withdrawal

The various withdrawal behaviors are positively correlated; engaging in one leads to another and so on

Psychological contracts

Reflect employees' beliefs about what they owe the org and what the org owes them

Transactional contracts

Based on a narrow set of specific monetary obligations

Relational contracts

Based on a broader set of open-ended and subjective obligations

Perceived organizational support

Reflects the degree to which employees believe that the org values their contributions and cares about their well-being